Education encyclopedia

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In our rapidly changing global world, millions of students are currently taking college-level online (distance education) classes. Private and public universities in the United States and abroad are offering Certificate, Baccalaureate, Masters and Doctoral degree programs over the Internet to adult learners. From Ivy League to Community Colleges, an increasing number of students can log on to their classes from home, work or while commuting by bus and train. Adult learners frequently juggle a myriad of responsibilities including raising children, career, and care giving for senior parents. Formerly, a university of interest may have been out of reach geographically. Presently, an employee located in the United States can register for classes taught half way around the world. Non-traditional venues outside of the more traditional classroom offer viable opportunities for continuing one’s education.

Adult learners make up the largest demographic of post-secondary institutions in the United States. For this student group, the benefits of online academic programs are:

• To update current skill sets

• To learn new skill sets

• To earn an undergraduate or graduate level degree

• The fulfillment of academic requirements necessary for a current job or promotion

• To change careers

• The satisfaction of certification or licensure requirements

• Personal and spiritual growth and development

Not for the faint of heart, success in distance education academic programs requires high levels of stamina, discipline, and motivation. A good candidate must be computer literate, possess the ability to read massive amounts of material in short-time frames, have good writing and communication skills, hold high expectations for good grades, enjoy applying critical thinking and commit a minimum of 15 hours per week per course (be prepared to allocate more, if necessary).

The Internet and the World Wide Web provide the critical technology platform for distance education. University technological and operational infrastructures (including hardware, software and transmission) provide the additional cornerstones to the technology platform needed to execute distance education programs. The delivery of academic content may be accomplished in several formats. The more traditional venues are correspondence courses, videos, audio-cassettes, CD-ROMS, and broadcasts via television and radio. Modern formats include synchronous and/or asynchronous education content distribution channels. Synchronous delivery refers to real-time interaction between instructor and student i.e., two-way video-conferences, whiteboards, chat rooms, telephone software (ex. Skype), and mobile technology devices. Asynchronous interaction does not involve real time communication. Instead, interaction between instructor and student is accomplished through the use of e-mail, DVDs, and the traditional education delivery formats.

As a student, you will need a desktop or laptop computer, an Internet Service provider, a cell phone, software (i.e., word processor, financial spreadsheet, calendar and Power Point), a backup storage disk drive (nothing can make your heart drop faster than losing a body of work that you’ve diligently developed), a headset with microphone for virtual team discussions and the traditional school supplies. Optional technology may include memory upgrades, scanners, digital scanners, and fax machines.

Ten Tips For The Successful Online Student:

• Have a credit card or debit card ready for downloading e-books and other required course reading materials.

• Maintain a list of more than one bookstore in the event that a required textbook is sold out. It’s always a good idea to obtain a list of the required textbooks midway through the term and order in advance for the following term.

• Do not be shy about asking for help if needed. I cannot stress enough the importance of communicating openly with your professor or instructor about course material that you may not understand. Online academic programs tend to move rapidly and course content that you do not understand will most likely cause problems down the road resulting in frustration and possibly, lower grades.

• Seek out a tutor. If there are areas that you know need strengthening, even before the class begins, have a tutor on stand-by. Also, the telephone number of a computer specialist should be in your rolodex.

• Time management will be critical. Keep a planner. Read your syllabus as soon as it becomes available and plan accordingly.

• Uphold your responsibilities as a virtual team member. Your contributions will directly impact the team grade.

• Exercise. Long hours at the computer can cause strain on the neck, shoulder, arm and back muscles, not to mention the hands. Remember to periodically stretch and tone.

• Eat a healthy diet. Keep good healthy recipes handy. Hydrate. Avoid heavy snacking on calorie-laden food and instead eat lots of fruit and vegetables. Avoid white flour and choose high fiber grains.

• See your doctor. A healthy body feeds a healthy mind.

• Stay in contact with your Academic Advisor to be sure that you are satisfying the requirements needed to complete your degree.

In the Fall term of 2006, 3.5 million students representing 20% of all U.S. higher education students, took at least one online course (2007. The Sloan Consortium). It is projected that distance education will continue to grow in popularity domestically and internationally. The most commonly offered online academic programs are Business, Computer Science and Engineering, Education, Engineering, Library Science, Nursing, and Public Health. Whether you select a community college, public institution, private institution or Ivy League university, enjoy the learning experience.

© 2007-2008 Jeanna Foy-Stanley

Introduction

The purpose of general education is to provide rich and significant experiences in the major aspects of living. This is directed so as to promote the fullest possible realization of personal potentialities and the most effective participation in a democratic society. The contributory role of basic mathematics curriculum in achieving these laudable goals cannot be over emphasized especially in the primary school. This is why there is much emphasis on mathematics as a core subject in the primary and secondary school levels of education in Nigeria (FGN 2004). Mathematics as a bedrock of science and technology and as a school subject is recognized as the foundation without which a nation cannot become prosperous and economically dependent (Umonyang, 1997).This underscores the significance of the mathematical competence of all the learners at basic level of education, at the same time the need for teachers to make learning of mathematics more interesting to the learner  is imperative. In order words, good teaching should begin with the teacher having a clear, mental way of the exact changes he has to bring about in the learner.

Mathematics is a tool used in the daily lives of the individual. Every daily activity of man requires the knowledge and use of mathematics inquiry needed for action learning to take place which will help learners to develop essential 21st century skills through relevant and authentic content and contexts in the MDG. Agwagah, (1996) stressed the important role of mathematics and mathematics teachers in national development in actualising the needs of the learner and society in MDG programmes. Teachers’ method of instruction has not been effective in meeting the needs of this national development in Nigeria. Teacher instructional strategies especially at the foundation level of teaching and learning is a vital aspect of the nation’s productively independent (Okolo, 2000).

Research reports (Bruner, 1996, Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 1992) have indicated that changes are necessary in the way mathematics is been handled. The traditional method of instruction does not relate mathematical problems to the real world, help students think about realistic situations, or help students to generate and pose their own solutions. As a result, students may become unmotivated to learn and unconnected with what the teacher is doing in the classroom, developing an overall negative attitude towards mathematics.

At the primary school level, there is need for teachers to make learning of mathematics more interesting to the learner (pupils) by using good and varied instructional strategies which the teacher adopt and use to facilitate learning of abstract concepts, by helping to conceptualize ideas and stimulate the learners’ imagination; they are known to increase the learners’ active participation in the learning of mathematics. The use of varying instruction strategies in mathematics helps both the teacher and students in understanding each other. Since instructional strategies are so important, it becomes necessary that teachers learn to make use of effective and appropriate instructional method for the success of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) programme. Some MDG scope and objective are extension of Universal Basic Education (UBE) to respond to World global reforms. Nigeria adopted a National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDs) in 2004, seeking to implement the UBE law in order to provide better schools and trained teachers and trainers (Okebukola, 2005). MDG was initiated by Federal Government of Nigeria, to achieve its laudable goals as follows:

Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger,
Achieve universal primary education,
Promote gender equality and empower women
Reduce child mortality
Improve maternal health
Combat HIV and AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Ensure environmental sustainability
Develop a global partnership for development

Hence good instructional method of teachers is needed in our basic mathematics. The country need to make this a priority to make MDG goals come to reality. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate instructional strategies used by primary school teachers for the attainment of MDG in basic mathematics

 

The results of findings are as stated in tables:

Question1: What are the characteristics of teachers who participated in the basic mathematics of MDG?

The demographic variables of teachers in Ekiti State public and private primary schools are as stated in table 1.

Table 1: Teachers characteristic used for the basic mathematics in public and private primary school

Characteristics

Gender

Male

Female

 

Public: (n=300)

 

50(30)

250(150)

% attendance

 

60

60

Private:(n=100)

 

14(6)

86(28)

% attendance

 

42.86

32.56

 

Total:(N=400)

 

64(36)

336(178)

% attendance

 

56.25

52.98

 

Total

300(180)

60

100(34)

34%

400(214)

52.5

Experience

 

0-5

6-10

>10

 

 

90(40)

80(30)

130(70)

 

 

 

 

80(20)

20(12)

-

 

 

 

 

 

170(60)

100(42)

130(70)

 

35.29

42

53.85

Total

300(140)

46.67

100(32)

32

400(172)

43.00

Qualification

 

TC11

NCE

BSc Ed/BEd

Others

 

 

40(15)

70(40)

120(60)

70(32)

 

 

 

 

 

20(6)

50(20)

25(5)

5(0)

 

 

 

 

 

 

60(21)

120(60)

145(65)

75(32)

 

 

 

35

 

50

 

44.83

 

42.67

Total

300(147)

49.00

100(31)

31.00

400(178)

44.50

Marital Status

 

Single

Married

 

 

65(32)

235(76)

 

 

49.23

32.34

 

 

69(24)

31(7)

 

 

34.78

 

22.58

 

 

 

134(56)

266(83)

 

 

 

41.79

 

31.20

Total

300(108)

36

100(31)

31.00

400(139)

34.95

No of teachers who participated in the MDG programme are shown in the parentheses

Table 1 shows the number of teachers who had attended the MDG programme in Ekiti State public and private schools. Male and female teachers in public schools have the same chance of attendance of 60% each. In the private primary schools, only 42.86% of male have attended with 32.56% female teachers in attendance. The overall attendance of teachers in public schools was found to be 60%, while that of private schools was 34%. On the whole, 56.25% of male teachers have attended so far with 52.98% of female teachers in both public and private primary schools.

The highest percentage of the experience of teachers who have been on service for more than 10 years was found to be 53.85% in public schools. This is closely followed by those who have been on service between the last 5 years of 44.44%. While the list of teachers who have their experience between 6-10 years was found to be 37.50% in  private schools, teachers who have been on service between 6-10% had the highest percentage. This is closely followed by teachers have the experience between 0-5 years of 44.44%. It was found that there was no teacher of 10 years and above teaching experience. In overall, teachers who have been on service for more than 10 years had the majority of attendance with 53.85%. This is closely followed by those between 6-10 years of teaching service. Teachers with 5 years teaching experience had the least percentage of attendance of 35.29%.In all, public teachers had the majority of attendance in the MDG programme of 46.67%,while private school teachers had 32%

Majority of teachers who hold National Certificate in Education (NCE) (57.14%) in public primary schools have attended the MDG programme, followed closely by those with bachelors in education degree (45.71%). Teacher grade11 had the least percentage of attendance of 37.50%. This shows that majority of teachers in private schools who have attended the programme had NCE of 40%. Follow by grade 11 teachers of 30%. Teachers who have bachelors in education had the least percentage of attendance of 20%. In overall, NCE teachers of both public and private schools have the highest attendance of 50%, this is followed by those with bachelors of education degree 44.83% This is followed closely by those who have other qualifications (42.67%). Teacher grade11 had the least percentage of attendance of 35%. In all, public school teachers had the highest percentage of attendance of 49% and only 31% of the teachers in public schools have attended the programme with 49.23%.

Only 32.34% of married teachers have attended the programme with 34.78% of single teachers in private schools. This is closely followed by married teachers of 22.58%. Overall, single teachers had the highest percentage of attendance of 41.79%, while only 31.20% married teachers have attended so far. The overall teachers who have attended was found to be 36% in public schools. The study also shows that only 31% of teachers in private schools have attended the MDG programme. Table 2 shows teachers’ awareness, understanding and usage of basic mathematics curriculum in primary schools.

Question 2: Are teachers aware of the usage of basic mathematics curriculum of MDG programme?

Table 2: Awareness, understanding and usage of basic mathematics curriculum of MDG programme

Categories %

Public(n=300)

%

Private(n=100)

%

Have the MDG curriculum in mathematics

300(185)

61.67

100(31)

31

Understand curriculum

300(144)

48

100(51)

55

Use the curriculum

300(109)

36.33

100(64)

64

Understand the purpose of MDG

300(123)

41

100(47)

47

 

Table 2 shows that more than half (185) 61.67% of the teachers in public schools have the MDG curriculum in mathematics, while only 31% of teachers in private schools used the basic mathematics curriculum in primary schools. Private school teachers understand the purpose of using the curriculum better (54.6%) than public schools (47%). Both public (41%) and private (47%) schools teachers could understand the purpose of MDG curriculum as shown in table 2.Table 3 shows the structure of instructional strategies used by teachers

 

Question3: Is there any difference in the structure of instructional strategies used in basic mathematics curriculum for MDG programme?

Table 3: Frequency of the structure of instructional strategies used by teachers in both

Public and private primary schools

Structure

Zones

 

A

B

C

D

E

TOTAL

%

Group work

20

25

21

19

23

108

27

Drill

24

18

20

23

20

105

26.2

Participatory

6

9

10

9

6

40

10

Demonstration

6

7

5

8

8

34

8.5

Conversation

3

4

3

7

6

23

5.8

Inquiry modelling

4

5

7

5

7

28

7.0

Class audience

7

4

5

6

6

28

7

Independent study

10

8

 

9

3

4

34

8.5

Table 3 shows the structure of instructional strategies used by teachers in teaching the students in the basic mathematics curriculum of MDG programme. The frequencies of each of the instruction as used by teachers in teaching the pupils are as shown according to LGAs (zones). The total frequencies of occurrence of each instruction are as shown in the last column. These frequencies show that group work and drill methods had the highest number of occurrence for teaching the students with 108(27%) and 105(26.2%) respectively. This is followed by participatory approach with a total frequency of 40(10%). The next is the demonstration and independent study strategies with the frequency of 34(8.5%) each. Inquiry and class audience strategies have the least frequencies of occurrence of 28(7%) each. Table 4 shows the analysis of instructional strategies used for teaching basic mathematics in primary schools.

 

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between the instructional strategies used by teachers of public and private primary schools in basic mathematics

Table 4: Chi-Square analysis of the Instructional strategies used in Public and Private Primary Schools

Methods

Public

Private

Total

df

cal

tab

Rmk

Group work

168(56)

81

137

 

 

 

 

 

7

 

 

 

 

 

138.7

 

 

 

 

 

14.01

 

 

 

 

 

Significant

Drill

165(55)

73

128

Participatory

120(40)

64

104

Demonstration

114(38)

53

91

Conversation

76(25)

39

64

Inquiry

96(32)

47

79

Class audience

99(33)

49

82

Independent study

105(35)

55

90

Total

314

461

775

 

Table 4 shows the chi-square c (138.7) > table (14.07). Hence the hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, there is significant difference between the instructional strategies used by teachers in public and private primary schools in the MDG programme.

Hypothesis2: There is no significant difference between public and private schools teachers in the awareness, understanding and usage of the MDG Curriculum.

Table 5 shows the difference in the awareness, understanding and the usage of MDG curriculum.

Table 5: Awareness, understanding and the usage of MDG curriculum in Public and Private Schools

Categories %

Public(n=300)

Private(n=100)

Df

 

 

Rmk

Have the MDG curriculum in mathematics

61.5

31.3

 

 

3

 

 

18.32

 

 

7.82

 

 

Sig

Understand curriculum

48.4

54.6

Use the curriculum

35.36

63.67

Understand the purpose of MDG

41.16

46.74

Table 5 shows the chi-square X2c (18.32) > X2t(7.82). Hence the hypothesis is rejected. Therefore there is significant difference between the public and private school teachers in the awareness, understanding and usage of the basic mathematics curriculum. By implication the private schools teachers has more understanding and use the curriculum of the MDG better than the public schools, though the public teachers have more copies of the curriculum more than the private schools teachers.

 

Hypothesis3: There is no significant influence of teacher’s instructional strategies on the achievement of basic mathematics curriculum for MDG programme.

Table 6: Influence of teachers’ instructional strategies on achievement of basic Mathematics curriculum

Categories

Public n=300

Private n=100

Total

 

 

25.7

 

 

3.84

 

Influenced

195

63

258

Do not influence

105

37

142

Total

300

100

400

 

Table 6 shows that cal 25.7 was greater than  table3.84 at ?=0.05 level of significance. Therefore the hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is significant difference in the influence of teacher’s instructional strategies and the achievement of basic mathematics curriculum for MDG programme

 

Discussion

The study revealed some differences in the characteristics of teachers of public and private schools in terms of experience, qualification and marital status. High proportion of teachers in private schools had lower educational qualification. This calls for proper monitoring of standard in the employment of teachers in the private schools since most of the Nigerian children will spend there basic years in these schools. This finding was corroborated by Meremikwu& Enukoha (2006) &NCTM (2000) who reiterated a good standard for school maths at basic level.

Further findings of this study showed that MDG curriculum is not well wildly used in public schools, but are used in private schools. Since, they do not understand the purpose of MDG programme. The MDG programme stressed the need to develop national curriculum modules for primary and junior secondary education in line with MDG programme. The reason why during the long vacation, teachers are organised and trained in the use and adaptation of the modules from the national curriculum through workshop, seminars and meeting on curriculum delivery. This in effect will improve student’s achievement with a functional basic educational curriculum. The study also showed that many teachers of both public and private schools do not use some of instructional methods needed for the basic needs of the learners in mathematics. It was also found that only few methods were used for the teaching of basic mathematics. The findings of the study also revealed significant influence of instructional strategies in the advancement of basic mathematics. Hence, researchers (Kolawole, 2004; Darling-Hammond, 1996; UNESCO&ISESCO, 2001) have discovered major problems facing mathematics teaching in terms of teachers methods and called for teachers training and re-training as a way of consolidate and enlarge concepts and skills of teachers in the teaching process. When teachers do not use appropriate instructional strategies, they are less likely to achieve the desire learning outcomes. Hence, instructional strategies are an important of achieving the basic mathematics curriculum meant for MDG programmes.

Conclusion and Recommendations

There is need to widely spread the use of MDG curriculum through proper monitoring in both public and private primary schools to build capacity for the MDG at the foundation and basic level in core subjects such as mathematics and science. Modules for teaching mathematics are not always readily available for primary schools despite the emphasis of the MDG plan. Availability of these in both public and private schools will help to build good foundation for Nigerian pupils in the important subjects like mathematics.

 

 

 

 

 

References

Agwagah, U.N.V. (1996). Instructional deficiency in some secondary school maths topics; challenge of maths educators for future maths education. A paper presented at the 33rd annual conference of mathematical association of Nigeria.(MAN).

Burner, J(1966). Toward a theory of instruction. New York; Norton

Darling – Hammond, L & Snyder, J (1992) Conclusion study and the traditions of inquiry; the scientific tradition. In P.W Jackson (Ed), Handbook of research and curriculum. P. 41-78. New York; Macmillan

Darling-Hammond,I(1996) what matters most; a competent teacher for every child ; Quality Teaching for the 21st Century. Kappan Phi Dilta 78(3); 173-200.

 

Dugdale ,S(1990). Beyond the evident contnt goals pant111. An undercurrent- enhanced approach to trigonometric identities. Journal of Mathematical Behaviour. 9; 233-287

 

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education

Jaworski, B (1994). Investigating Mathematics Teaching. London; Falmer

Meremikwu, A,N& Enukoha, I.O(2006). Primary mathematics instructional aids and universal basic education in Nigeria. Mathematical association of Nigeria (MAN) proceed of annual national conference

Mousley, J, Lambdin, D & Koc,Y(2003). Mathematics teachers education and technology, in Bishop,N. A et.al (edu) second International Handbook of Mathematics Education; Dordrecht; Kluwer.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000) Principle and standards for school mathematics (NCTM).Reston.V.A

Okebukola, P (2005). Enhancing the relevance of STAN to national development. Memorial lecture NOTE of STAN at the 46th National Conference

Okolo, U.P (2006). The challenges of Universal Basic Education (UBE). The role of secondary mathematics. Paper presented at the 43rd Annual Conference of Mathematical Association of Nigeria (MAN) Bauchi; Nigeria. P1-13

Okoye F.N (2000). Strategies for improving the teaching of mathematics in secondary school in E.C Iloputaife (ed) effective science and computer education in the new millennium. Enugu; science and computer education department, Enugu state university of technology

 

Thompson, A (1984). The relationship of teachers conception of mathematics and mathematics teaching instructional practice. Educational study in mathematics.15 (2); 105-127 Dordrecht: Reidel.

Umonyang, IE (1997) Maximizing student’s achievement in mathematics thought multi- grade classroom teaching approach; paper presented at the 40th national conference of Science Teacher Association of Nigeria (STAN) p.25

In most cases, head teachers and members of the school management committees of schools in the developing world think that enhancing student performance in schools is strongly linked with hiring high quality teachers especially examiners and resource persons. However, it is also important to note that teacher performance is triggered by providing them with enough job amenities. People join organizations like schools in order to satisfy their varied needs. Teachers, for example, join teaching expecting to meet their financial and social needs because they are in turn paid salaries and even given other incentives to improve their livelihoods. Declining school quality is one of the most serious problems facing Third World countries and particularly in Africa. It is mainly the lack of teacher amenities that limit opportunities to enhance teacher morale and performance leading to declining school quality in the developing countries because powerful teacher incentives determine school quality. A teachers’ strike was for example looming in Kenya as the government has reneged on its pledge to implement to the letter a teacher’s remuneration package recommended by a commission it appointed in 1997.

School performance is directly linked to the quality and quantity of teacher remuneration. To improve teachers’ satisfaction and performance, Botswana initiated a major reform in teachers’ incentives of junior secondary education. To assess its effectiveness, classroom observations were conducted on 549 teachers in 50 classrooms. However, teacher satisfaction is in most cases due to the school’s ability to provide adequate basic necessities to its staff. The most direct incentives provided by schools include housing, transport allowances and salaries. However, the Botswana studies discovered a paradox for school reformers that increased job satisfaction may not improve performance or student achievement, because satisfied teachers may resist efforts to change. However, in Uganda the opposite is true. Teachers and school administrators attach candid value to job amenities. In order to ensure improved performance, school administrators try to motivate teachers using job amenities like wage increment, housing allowances, transport allowances, promotion on the job etc.

There is a widespread perception that when teachers’ pay is low, this is the greatest obstacle to attracting motivated and highly competent people to the profession. Since deficient teachers pose one of the most severe constraints on the provision of a quality education, the perception is that if teacher remuneration were to rise, higher quality education could be provided. Education has always been a weak point of any region’s development equation when there are no fillers that attract teachers to love their profession. For example in 2006, UNESCO noted that enrollment has increased recently in many Latin countries, but overall teaching quality remains very poor which is attributed to poor teacher pay and the lack of incentive structures to retain teachers. More so, low student achievement in Uganda and the developing world in general has been documented to be the outcome of such poor teacher remuneration. This poor student performance leads to high repetition rates and, eventually, high dropout rates.

Salary and teacher motivation

Everyone wants a salary increase, and teachers are no exception. Nonetheless, policymakers should consider whether that is the best way to improve education and doing that requires a strong relationship between teacher amenities as remunerations and school performance. The intention is to find the contribution of teacher amenities to school quality. If it is apparent that education quality is better in those third world schools where teacher salaries are higher, therefore low pay is an important cause of poor school performance. Similarly, if there is a close link between salary and teaching quality, it is strong to believe that pay levels determine teaching excellence. Most of the studies on this point have not demonstrated a close link between teachers’ pay and the performance of their students.

This absence of an association is evident in the United State, and in the developing countries in general, and finally in Latin American countries in particular. These studies suggest that the link between salary and quality is weak or nonexistent. This conclusion is borne out by the fact that there are many places where pay is high, but quality does not improve. There are also schools and systems in which the pay is lower, and the quality is good. Obviously, the phenomenon is complex, and many other factors could be involved. We cannot determine unilaterally that salary levels are unconnected to quality, and we do not fully understand the mechanism if research is not undertaken. Nonetheless, the data do show that those responsible for devising and implementing policy lack good arguments to support the idea that increasing teachers’ pay would necessarily improve teaching quality, since—so far at least—the data reveal no causal relationship between the two.

The teaching profession as a whole is beset by deficiencies in terms of teacher remuneration, which is why there is poor school quality. Promotion does not depend on merit or performance. Absenteeism is not properly penalized; and job stability is excessively strong, since teachers who are not up to the job cannot be fired. It is interesting to note that in Cuba, which some believe has the best education system in Latin America; deficient teachers are removed from their posts.

The idea of attracting good teachers in order for a school to improve student performance is internationally acceptable in almost every school system. In Connecticut for example, a system of monetary rewards is being used to attract better teachers. Specifically, the state offers a substantial lump sum payment to those who sign a contract to teach for a certain number of years. The underlying logic is that such an incentive is of more interest to young teachers than a series of pay increases over the course of a professional life. The scheme allows the state to attract more skilled teachers, although a significant number of them leave at the end of the mandatory contract period. The idea is compelling; because it may be less costly than offering higher pay increases throughout a career.

Some schools in the third world attract better teachers when they create a more pleasant work environment. However Hanushek does not explain what a pleasant work environment is in the context of the school. But the present researcher, form experience acknowledges that a pleasant work environment in the third world context means the provision of better amenities for teachers so as to retain them in their present job. However, in addition Hanushek observes rightly that the strategy of creating a pleasant work environment for all teachers is mostly seen in private schools, but there is no reason why the public sector could not employ it as well because all types of schools deal with human beings who are never satisfied. These human beings have intractable needs. Its success will depend on the hiring of good principals, school autonomy, and other factors related to the work environment. Without entering into a more systematic discussion of the factors that determine how schools are organized, it is worth noting that a good principal can create a favorable environment in a short amount of time, and that a poor principal can cause a swift deterioration in a school’s climate. Teachers’ amenities are not only in monetary terms but also in non-monetary terms.

Non-monetary amenities in developing countries include promotion, advancement and benefits, job stability among others. However, the problem with some third world countries like those in Latin America is that there is poor school quality because little attention is paid to the non-monetary amenities as with monetary amenities.

Teachers’ pay as a job amenity: an assessment of recent trends in Africa

Pay for teachers is also a major job amenity for teachers in schools in developing countries. In fact, it is the largest amenity. During the last two decades of the 20th century, teachers’ salaries have been regularly declining throughout most low income countries, and particularly so in Africa. This is why there is a comparative decline in school quality because teachers have resorted to looking for alternative sources of incomes. But the question of whether this decline is a favorable evolution or whether it can jeopardize the attainment of the Education For All (EFA) objectives is not that easily answered. When salaries are too high, most of the already scarce resources of the education sector are dedicated to their payment to the detriment of either wider coverage of the education system or better provision of complementary inputs (such as textbooks for example). This then raises a crucial question about the effect of teacher salaries on school performance because school performance depends not only on teachers’ pay but also other determinants of performance which require availability of financial resources. This present study will try to respond to this intractable dilemma.

If teachers’ compensation becomes too low, it can be feared that teachers’ commitment to their job will be affected and that the quality of schooling will suffer the consequences of this loss of motivation. Based on an averaging of the characteristics of the education systems of various countries that seem to be under way to reach the EFA targets, that a reasonable level for an average teachers’ salary would be about 3.5 units of per capita GDP. If this level was to be aimed at, most African countries would indeed have to carry on decreasing the salaries paid to their teachers. This paper documents the level and trends of teachers’ pay in Africa, discusses the validity of the various arguments sketched above based on existing literature, and ends by detailing some case studies. Since the mid-70s, African teachers have witnessed a continuous decline in their salaries, leading to a general reduction in the number of teachers as indicated by declines in the number of teachers from 8.6% in 1975 to 4.4% in 2000. This decline amounts on average to a halving of the teachers’ wage expressed in units of per capita GDP from 6.6% in 1975 to 3.7% in 2000.

Nevertheless, the wage bill is still eating up most of the recurrent expenditures for primary education. However, Mingat adds that recurrent expenditure was 97% of Senegal primary education sector in the period 1992-1997 going to also other sectors apart from salaries for teachers. This same story applies to Ugandan schools where other sectors like feeding students, purchasing academic materials and other inevitable expenses try to consume what might be paid to teachers because these other expenses are also crucial to academic performance of students.

In conclusion, it is safe to say that job amenities are the core for effective performance of teachers and other staff in schools. When management provides teachers with tangible amenities then there is a reason to believe that teachers will reduce moonlighting and will at the same time work effectively to expand students’ opportunities by improved academic performance.

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Are you the parent of a child with a disability who thinks that your child needs an educational program during the summer? Does long summer breaks cause your child with emotional disabilities to regress in behavior? This article will discuss the definition of Extended School Year (ESY), and what services your child may be eligible for.

Extended school year is a term, to describe any special education and related services, which are given outside of the regular school year. School districts are required under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), to offer extended school year services, if the child needs it to receive a free appropriate public education.

There have been quite a few court cases about ESY, as well as policy letters from state board of educations, and the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). Check your state board of education for any policy letters on ESY. On February 4, 2003 OSEP released a policy letter that states “A public agency may not limit extended school year services to particular categories of disability, or unilaterally limit the type, amount, or duration of these services.” ESY must be provided to the child, at no cost to the parent.

Children with disabilities can receive a lot of different services during ESY. They can receive educational services (reading, Math, written language), self help skills, functional skills to help them become independent, critical life skills, behavioral interventions, related services (occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). The list can go on and on. You must keep in mind that, your child must need ESY, in order to receive FAPE.

School districts are supposed to bring up ESY to parents in a timely manner, so that the any disagreements can be resolved at a due process hearing. In my opinion school districts rarely bring it up, unless a parent insists. Make sure that at your child’s annual review ESY is discussed.

By understanding what ESY is and how your child can benefit, will help you advocate for needed services for your child.

Before we get down to the real topic we should first be aware of what is are High School Diploma and General Education Development (GED). GED is an exam that comprises of five areas namely written skills, social studies, mathematics, science and interpreting literature. After passing through these exams a person is said to have earned not a High School Diploma but a GED. Whereas, when a person completes an accredited High School Program that has met all the credit requirements, he/she is awarded a High School Diploma and is called a ‘high school graduate’.

Regular students study for 1-3 years to attain a High School Diploma, whereas some students who appear for a series of tests in a day and attain a GED and move on to college. The question is whether a High School Diploma is better than a GED or whether colleges give equal importance to a GED and a High School Diploma. To evaluate both you can take a look at these hard facts and then choose suitable mode of education.

Let us first take a good look at GED. A student is awarded GED when he/she meets a certain set of criteria. Students who enroll for GED should in no case enroll for or be graduated in a course of High School Diploma. Additionally, they should also be over 26 years of age. Every state has its own requirements that are to be fulfilled by any student who wishes to acquire a GED. GED is awarded to a student who had successfully passed a series of tests on 5 subjects. A student is required to attain more than 60% marks in each of the subjects to be declared as passed.

There is no traditional course as such to attain a GED. It takes around 7 hours on a whole to complete all of the five tests for GED, which a student can give in a single shot. However, one might have to take help of preparation courses in order or fare well in the exams.

In majority of offices a GED is considered as a comparable degree for High School Diploma at the entry level. A small number of employers, however, might consider it as inferior to High School Diploma. If a student proceeds further for higher studies in a college then at a later stage the employers will not bother to know how he/she completed his High School Diploma. Reception in colleges and universities depends from one to the other. While some might not have any problem with a GED, others may not accept a GED as a High School Diploma equivalent.

Most of the schools that offer a High School Diploma allow students to work after attaining one such degree, though rules might vary from state to state. High School Diplomas do not have any specific age requirements. However, in order to receive a High School Diploma, students have to complete the courseware as decided by their school district, which might vary from one district to the other. Traditionally, a student takes around four years to attain a High School Diploma. This diploma is widely accepted at offices at the entry level. In order to attain a higher position in office, students often opt for a college degree rather than working in an office after high school.

However, those who move into the service sector earn more as compare to those who enter the service bandwagon without a High School Diploma. In colleges also, students who have attained a High School Diploma are accepted most times. However, it is not guaranteed that a person holding a High School Diploma or GED will be accepted in a college. Other factors like coursework, grade point average and co-curricular activities are also given importance.

primary grades are generally more relaxed ceremonies rewarding students and congratulate them instead of formal and Graduation unified and dresses . It is their festival, but to cross the road at a higher level of education. As elementary school graduations not all U.S. schools, they are increasing in the glory and importance in achieving their own distinctive hats and dresses. They also appreciated the importance of wearing hats and coats good. primary divisions began in the late 20th century and focuses on student achievement and encouraging parental involvement flattering. As a high school and university graduates have been popular for centuries in the elementary grades are much more modern. Take the modern form of a memorial service to education as other schools and universities. They also take in a modern style with graduation caps and gowns. ‘/ P> The majority of primary school graduations in the last week of school goes, it is for American elementary students. It is for students sufficient time to prepare their final coats and hats. typically occurs during late May or early June of the year that students wear their hats and coats of uniform color. These events usually occur during the school day, so that each student can contribute. Most students have to do if the parents transport the graduation date will be after school. All parents are encouraged to be present in this particular case, most schools are aware that many parents are not able to take a break from work to be there. Parents should help their children javascript in preparation and research for the ‘right of an attribute  types of caps and shirts for graduation. Students completing their final year of primary school are usually the fifth or sixth year, but it also depends on the school or program of the State. They attend primary school by the end of their time to celebrate in a school, which celebrated with their hats and coats. Elementary education are usually conducted in the local school, usually in the auditorium or gymnasium, where students wear their hats and coats. School administrators inform parents about the impending celebration by letters. They are often sent to their home for several weeks in advance and ask them to come. Sometimes, the letter reads as follows, for their child, how to get to graduation caps and gowns. These letters include information RSVP, if a party to be ready immediately after graduation would be. As caps and gowns are necessities of high school and university degree, they are not always part of the elementary division. For some, for example, students in their own ; hats and coats of high quality for their divisions during their elementary art class. Or how to get approvals supported by the school or parents’ organizations. Receptions are often held in the cafeteria of the school or individual in each classroom.